it's intended for John

SUBJECT AREA: Horology, Ports and shipping

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John Harrison was the son of a carpenter and was brought up to that trade. He was largely self-taught and learned mechanics from a copy of Nicholas Saunderson's lectures that had been lent to him. With the assistance of his younger brother, James, he built a series of unconventional clocks, mainly of wood. He was always concerned to reduce friction, without using oil, and this influenced the design of his "grasshopper" escapement. He also invented the "gridiron" compensation pendulum, which depended on the differential expansion of brass and steel. The excellent performance of his regulator clocks, which incorporated these devices, convinced him that they could also be used in a sea dock to compete for the longitude prize. In 1714 the Government had offered a prize of £20,000 for a method of determining longitude at sea to within half a degree after a voyage to the West Indies. In theory the longitude could be found by carrying an accurate timepiece that would indicate the time at a known longitude, but the requirements of the Act were very exacting. The timepiece would have to have a cumulative error of no more than two minutes after a voyage lasting six weeks.

In 1730 Harrison went to London with his proposal for a sea clock, supported by examples of his grasshopper escapement and his gridiron pendulum. His proposal received sufficient encouragement and financial support, from George Graham and others, to enable him to return to Barrow and construct his first sea clock, which he completed five years later. This was a large and complicated machine that was made out of brass but retained the wooden wheelwork and the grasshopper escapement of the regulator clocks. The two balances were interlinked to counteract the rolling of the vessel and were controlled by helical springs operating in tension. It was the first timepiece with a balance to have temperature compensation. The effect of temperature change on the timekeeping of a balance is more pronounced than it is for a pendulum, as two effects are involved: the change in the size of the balance; and the change in the elasticity of the balance spring. Harrison compensated for both effects by using a gridiron arrangement to alter the tension in the springs. This timekeeper performed creditably when it was tested on a voyage to Lisbon, and the Board of Longitude agreed to finance improved models. Harrison's second timekeeper dispensed with the use of wood and had the added refinement of a remontoire, but even before it was tested he had embarked on a third machine. The balance of this machine was controlled by a spiral spring whose effective length was altered by a bimetallic strip to compensate for changes in temperature. In 1753 Harrison commissioned a London watchmaker, John Jefferys, to make a watch for his own personal use, with a similar form of temperature compensation and a modified verge escapement that was intended to compensate for the lack of isochronism of the balance spring. The time-keeping of this watch was surprisingly good and Harrison proceeded to build a larger and more sophisticated version, with a remontoire. This timekeeper was completed in 1759 and its performance was so remarkable that Harrison decided to enter it for the longitude prize in place of his third machine. It was tested on two voyages to the West Indies and on both occasions it met the requirements of the Act, but the Board of Longitude withheld half the prize money until they had proof that the timekeeper could be duplicated. Copies were made by Harrison and by Larcum Kendall, but the Board still continued to prevaricate and Harrison received the full amount of the prize in 1773 only after George III had intervened on his behalf.

Although Harrison had shown that it was possible to construct a timepiece of sufficient accuracy to determine longitude at sea, his solution was too complex and costly to be produced in quantity. It had, for example, taken Larcum Kendall two years to produce his copy of Harrison's fourth timekeeper, but Harrison had overcome the psychological barrier and opened the door for others to produce chronometers in quantity at an affordable price. This was achieved before the end of the century by Arnold and Earnshaw, but they used an entirely different design that owed more to Le Roy than it did to Harrison and which only retained Harrison's maintaining power.

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See also: Burgi, Jost; Huygens, Christiaan

SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace

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After serving an apprenticeship in the lace industry, Stringfellow left Nottingham in about 1820 and moved to Chard in Somerset, where he set up his own business. He had wide interests such as photography, politics, and the use of electricity for medical treatment. Stringfellow met William Samuel Henson, who also lived in Chard and was involved in lacemaking, and became interested in his "aerial steam carriage" of 1842–3. When support for this project foundered, Henson and Stringfellow drew up an agreement "Whereas it is intended to construct a model of an Aerial Machine". They built a large model with a wing span of 20 ft (6 m) and powered by a steam engine, which was probably the work of Stringfellow. The model was tested on a hillside near Chard, often at night to avoid publicity, but despite many attempts it never made a successful flight. At this point Henson emigrated to the United States. From 1848 Stringfellow continued to experiment with models of his own design, starting with one with a wing span of 10 ft (3m). He decided to test it in a disused lace factory, rather than in the open air. Stringfellow fitted a horizontal wire which supported the model as it gained speed prior to free flight. Unfortunately, neither this nor later models made a sustained flight, despite Stringfellow's efficient lightweight steam engine. For many years Stringfellow abandoned his aeronautical experiments, then in 1866 when the (Royal) Aeronautical Society was founded, his interest was revived. He built a steam-powered triplane, which was demonstrated "flying" along a wire at the world's first Aeronautical Exhibition, held at Crystal Palace, London, in 1868. Stringfellow also received a cash prize for one of his engines, which was the lightest practical power unit at the Exhibition. Although Stringfellow's models never achieved a really successful flight, his designs showed the way for others to follow. Several of his models are preserved in the Science Museum in London.

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SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering

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John Jacob Holtzapffel was the second son of Charles Holtzapffel and was educated at King's College School, London, and at Cromwell House, Highgate. Following the death of his father in 1847 and of his elder brother, Charles, at the age of 10, he was called on at an early age to take part in the business of lathe-making and turning founded by his grandfather. He made many improvements to the lathe for ornamental turning, but he is now remembered chiefly for the continuation of his father's publication Turning and Mechanical Manipulation. J.J. Holtzapffel produced the fourth volume, on Plain Turning, in 1879, and the fifth, on Ornamental Turning, in 1884. In 1894 he revised and enlarged the third volume, but the intended sixth volume was never completed. J.J.Holtzapffel was admitted to the Turners' Company of London in 1862 and became Master in 1879. He was associated with the establishment of the Turners' Competition to encourage the art of turning and was one of the judges for many years. He was also an examiner for the City and Guilds of London Institute and the British Horological Institute. He was a member of the Society of Arts and a corresponding member of the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia. He was elected an Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1863 and became an Associate Member after reorganization of the classes of membership in 1878.

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SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering, Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Steam and internal combustion engines

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As a boy, Smeaton showed mechanical ability, making for himself a number of tools and models. This practical skill was backed by a sound education, probably at Leeds Grammar School. At the age of 16 he entered his father's office; he seemed set to follow his father's profession in the law. In 1742 he went to London to continue his legal studies, but he preferred instead, with his father's reluctant permission, to set up as a scientific instrument maker and dealer and opened a shop of his own in 1748. About this time he began attending meetings of the Royal Society and presented several papers on instruments and mechanical subjects, being elected a Fellow in 1753. His interests were turning towards engineering but were informed by scientific principles grounded in careful and accurate observation.

In 1755 the second Eddystone lighthouse, on a reef some 14 miles (23 km) off the English coast at Plymouth, was destroyed by fire. The President of the Royal Society was consulted as to a suitable engineer to undertake the task of constructing a new one, and he unhesitatingly suggested Smeaton. Work began in 1756 and was completed in three years to produce the first great wave-swept stone lighthouse. It was constructed of Portland stone blocks, shaped and pegged both together and to the base rock, and bonded by hydraulic cement, scientifically developed by Smeaton. It withstood the storms of the English Channel for over a century, but by 1876 erosion of the rock had weakened the structure and a replacement had to be built. The upper portion of Smeaton's lighthouse was re-erected on a suitable base on Plymouth Hoe, leaving the original base portion on the reef as a memorial to the engineer.

The Eddystone lighthouse made Smeaton's reputation and from then on he was constantly in demand as a consultant in all kinds of engineering projects. He carried out a number himself, notably the 38 mile (61 km) long Forth and Clyde canal with thirty-nine locks, begun in 1768 but for financial reasons not completed until 1790. In 1774 he took charge of the Ramsgate Harbour works.

On the mechanical side, Smeaton undertook a systematic study of water-and windmills, to determine the design and construction to achieve the greatest power output. This work issued forth as the paper "An experimental enquiry concerning the natural powers of water and wind to turn mills" and exerted a considerable influence on mill design during the early part of the Industrial Revolution. Between 1753 and 1790 Smeaton constructed no fewer than forty-four mills.

Meanwhile, in 1756 he had returned to Austhorpe, which continued to be his home base for the rest of his life. In 1767, as a result of the disappointing performance of an engine he had been involved with at New River Head, Islington, London, Smeaton began his important study of the steam-engine. Smeaton was the first to apply scientific principles to the steam-engine and achieved the most notable improvements in its efficiency since its invention by Newcomen, until its radical overhaul by James Watt. To compare the performance of engines quantitatively, he introduced the concept of "duty", i.e. the weight of water that could be raised 1 ft (30 cm) while burning one bushel (84 lb or 38 kg) of coal. The first engine to embody his improvements was erected at Long Benton colliery in Northumberland in 1772, with a duty of 9.45 million pounds, compared to the best figure obtained previously of 7.44 million pounds. One source of heat loss he attributed to inaccurate boring of the cylinder, which he was able to improve through his close association with Carron Ironworks near Falkirk, Scotland.

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1) (to mean or plan (to do something or that someone else should do something): Do you still intend to go?; Do you intend them to go?; Do you intend that they should go too?) tener la intención de, querer

2) (to mean (something) to be understood in a particular way: His remarks were intended to be a compliment.) pretender, querer decir

3) ((with for) to direct at: That letter/bullet was intended for me.) ir dirigido a

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- intent

- intention

intend vb pensar / tener la intención

tr[ɪn'tend]

transitive verb

1 (plan, mean, have in mind) tener la intención de, tener el propósito de, proponerse, pensar, querer

■ I didn't intend staying so long no tenía la intención de quedarme tanto tiempo

■ they intend to marry tienen la intención de casarse

■ it didn't quite turn out as they intended no salió tal y como lo habían pensado

■ I don't intend to put up with this any longer no pienso soportar esto ni un momento más

■ what do you intend to do/doing about it? ¿qué piensas hacer al respecto?

■ I intend you to inherit everything quiero que heredes todo

■ what did she intend by that? ¿qué ha querido decir con eso?

■ it was intended as a joke sólo era una broma

■ no offence was intended no quería ofenderte

2 (destine for) ir dirigido,-a a

■ that comment was intended for you aquel comentario iba dirigido a ti, eso lo ha dicho por ti

■ that shot was intended for the President ese disparo iba dirigido al Presidente

■ the course is intended for writers el curso va dirigido a escritores

intend [ɪn'tɛnd] vt

1) mean: querer decir

that's not what I intended: eso no es lo que quería decir

2) plan: tener planeado, proyectar, proponerse

I intend to finish by Thursday: me propongo acabar para el jueves

• entender v.

• intentar v.

• pensar v.

• pretender v.

• proponerse v.

• querer decir v.

[ɪn'tend]

1) (with noun)

2) (with verb)

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SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy

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Several members of Champion's Quaker family were actively engaged as merchants in Bristol during the late seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries. Port records show Nehemiah in receipt of Cornish copper ore at Bristol's Crews Hole smelting works by 1706, in association with the newly formed brassworks of the city. He later became a leading partner, managing the company some time after Abraham Darby left the Bristol works to pursue his interest at Coalbrookdale. Champion, probably in company with his father, became the largest customer for Darby's Coalbrookdale products and also acted as Agent, at least briefly, for Thomas Newcomen.

A patent in 1723 related to two separate innovations introduced by the brass company.

The first improved the output of brass by granulating the copper constituent and increasing its surface area. A greater proportion of zinc vapour could permeate the granules compared with the previous practice, resulting in the technique being adopted generally in the cementation process used at the time. The latter part of the same patent introduced a new type of coal-fired furnace which facilitated annealing in bulk so replacing the individual processing of pieces. The principle of batch annealing was generally adopted, although the type of furnace was later improved. A further patent, in 1739, in the name of Nehemiah, concerned overshot water-wheels possibly intended for use in conjunction with the Newcomen atmospheric pumping engine employed for recycling water by his son William.

Champion's two sons, John and William, and their two sons, both named John, were all concerned with production of non-ferrous metals and responsible for patented innovations. Nehemiah, shortly before his death, is believed to have partnered William at the Warmley works to exploit his son's new patent for producing metallic zinc.

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SUBJECT AREA: Electricity, Electronics and information technology, Photography, film and optics

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Paul was educated at the City of London School and Finsbury Technical College. He worked first for a short time in the Bell Telephone Works in Antwerp, Belgium, and then in the electrical instrument shop of Elliott Brothers in the Strand until 1891, when he opened an instrument-making business at 44 Hatton Garden, London. He specialized in the design and manufacture of electrical instruments, including the Ayrton Mather galvanometer. In 1902, with a purpose-built factory, he began large batch production of his instruments. He also opened a factory in New York, where uncalibrated instruments from England were calibrated for American customers. In 1903 Paul introduced the Unipivot galvanometer, in which the coil was supported at the centre of gravity of the moving system on a single pivot. The pivotal friction was less than in a conventional instrument and could be used without accurate levelling, the sensitivity being far beyond that of any pivoted galvanometer then in existence.

In 1894 Paul was asked by two entrepreneurs to make copies of Edison's kinetoscope, the pioneering peep-show moving-picture viewer, which had just arrived in London. Discovering that Edison had omitted to patent the machine in England, and observing that there was considerable demand for the machine from show-people, he began production, making six before the end of the year. Altogether, he made about sixty-six units, some of which were exported. Although Edison's machine was not patented, his films were certainly copyrighted, so Paul now needed a cinematographic camera to make new subjects for his customers. Early in 1895 he came into contact with Birt Acres, who was also working on the design of a movie camera. Acres's design was somewhat impractical, but Paul constructed a working model with which Acres filmed the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race on 30 March, and the Derby at Epsom on 29 May. Paul was unhappy with the inefficient design, and developed a new intermittent mechanism based on the principle of the Maltese cross. Despite having signed a ten-year agreement with Paul, Acres split with him on 12 July 1895, after having unilaterally patented their original camera design on 27 May. By the early weeks of 1896, Paul had developed a projector mechanism that also used the Maltese cross and which he demonstrated at the Finsbury Technical College on 20 February 1896. His Theatrograph was intended for sale, and was shown in a number of venues in London during March, notably at the Alhambra Theatre in Leicester Square. There the renamed Animatographe was used to show, among other subjects, the Derby of 1896, which was won by the Prince of Wales's horse "Persimmon" and the film of which was shown the next day to enthusiastic crowds. The production of films turned out to be quite profitable: in the first year of the business, from March 1896, Paul made a net profit of £12,838 on a capital outlay of about £1,000. By the end of the year there were at least five shows running in London that were using Paul's projectors and screening films made by him or his staff.

Paul played a major part in establishing the film business in England through his readiness to sell apparatus at a time when most of his rivals reserved their equipment for sole exploitation. He went on to become a leading producer of films, specializing in trick effects, many of which he pioneered. He was affectionately known in the trade as "Daddy Paul", truly considered to be the "father" of the British film industry. He continued to appreciate fully the possibilities of cinematography for scientific work, and in collaboration with Professor Silvanus P.Thompson films were made to illustrate various phenomena to students.

Paul ended his involvement with film making in 1910 to concentrate on his instrument business; on his retirement in 1920, this was amalgamated with the Cambridge Instrument Company. In his will he left shares valued at over £100,000 to form the R.W.Paul Instrument Fund, to be administered by the Institution of Electrical Engineers, of which he had been a member since 1887. The fund was to provide instruments of an unusual nature to assist physical research.

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SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives, Telecommunications

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After private education and an engineering apprenticeship, Crampton worked under Marc Brunel, Daniel Gooch and the Rennie brothers before setting up as a civil engineer in 1848. His developing ideas on locomotive design were expressed through a series of five patents taken out between 1842 and 1849, each making a multiplicity of claims. The most typical feature of the Crampton locomotive, however, was a single pair of driving wheels set to the rear of the firebox. This meant they could be of large diameter, while the centre of gravity of the locomotive remained low, for the boiler barrel, though large, had only small carrying-wheels beneath it. The cylinders were approximately midway along the boiler and were outside the frames, as was the valve gear. The result was a steady-riding locomotive which neither pitched about a central driving axle nor hunted from side to side, as did other contemporary locomotives, and its working parts were unusually accessible for maintenance. However, adhesive weight was limited and the long wheelbase tended to damage track. Locomotives of this type were soon superseded on British railways, although they lasted much longer in Germany and France. Locomotives built to the later patents incorporated a long, coupled wheelbase with drive through an intermediate crankshaft, but they mostly had only short lives. In 1851 Crampton, with associates, laid the first successful submarine electric telegraph cable. The previous year the brothers Jacob and John Brett had laid a cable, comprising a copper wire insulated with gutta-percha, beneath the English Channel from Dover to Cap Gris Nez: signals were passed but within a few hours the cable failed. Crampton joined the Bretts' company, put up half the capital needed for another attempt, and designed a much stronger cable. Four gutta-percha-insulated copper wires were twisted together, surrounded by tarred hemp and armoured by galvanized iron wires; this cable was successful.

Crampton was also active in railway civil engineering and in water and gas engineering, and c. 1882 he invented a hydraulic tunnel-boring machine intended for a Channel tunnel.

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SUBJECT AREA: Electricity

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After completing a mechanical engineering apprenticeship Wilde commenced in business as a telegraph and lightning conductor specialist in Lancashire. Several years spent on the design of an alphabetic telegraph resulted in a number of patents. In 1864 he secured a patent for an electromagnetic generator which gave alternating current from a shuttle-wound armature, the field being excited by a small direct-current magneto. Wilde's invention was described to the Royal Society by Faraday in March 1866. When demonstrated at the Paris Exhibition of 1867, Wilde's machine produced sufficient power to maintain an arc light. The small size of the generator provided a contrast to the large and heavy magnetoelectric machines also exhibited. He discovered, by experiment, that alternators in synchronism could be connected in parallel. At about the same time John Hopkinson arrived at the same conclusions on theoretical grounds.

Between 1866 and 1877 he sold ninety-four machines with commutators for electroplating purposes, a number being purchased by Elkingtons of Birmingham. He also supplied generators for the first use of electric searchlights on battleships. In his early experiments Wilde was extremely close to the discovery of true self-excitation from remnant magnetism, a principle which he was to discover in 1867 on machines intended for electroplating. His patents proved to be financially successful and he retired from business in 1884. During the remaining thirty-five years of his life he published many scientific papers, turning from experimental work to philosophical and, finally, theological matters. His record as an inventor established him as a pioneer of electrical engineering, but his lack of scientific training was to restrict his later contributions.

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SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives

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Cooper had minimal formal education, but following a childhood spent helping his small-businessman father, he had by his early twenties become a prosperous glue maker. In 1828, with partners, he set up an ironworks at Baltimore. The Baltimore \& Ohio Railroad, intended for horse haulage, was under construction and, to confound those sceptical of the powers of steam, Cooper built a steam locomotive, with vertical boiler and single vertical cylinder, that was so small that it was called Tom Thumb. Nevertheless, when on test in 1830, it proved a match for horse power and became one of the first locomotives to run on an American railway. Cooper did not, however, personally take this line of development further; rather, he built up a vast industrial empire and later in life became a noted philanthropist.

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See also: Allen, Horatio; Stevens, John; Winans, Ross

1) (a set of two of the same thing which are (intended to be) used etc together: a pair of shoes/gloves.) par

2) (a single thing made up of two parts: a pair of scissors; a pair of pants.) en saks; et par bukser

3) (two people, animals etc, often one of either sex, who are thought of together for some reason: a pair of giant pandas; John and James are the guilty pair.) par

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1) (a set of two of the same thing which are (intended to be) used etc together: a pair of shoes/gloves.) par

2) (a single thing made up of two parts: a pair of scissors; a pair of pants.) en saks; et par bukser

3) (two people, animals etc, often one of either sex, who are thought of together for some reason: a pair of giant pandas; John and James are the guilty pair.) par

SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace

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William Henson worked in the lacemaking industry and in his spare time invented many mechanical devices, from a breech-loading cannon to an ice-machine. It could be claimed that he invented the airliner, for in 1842 he prepared a patent (granted in 1843) for an "aerial steam carriage". The patent application was not just a vague outline, but contained detailed drawings of a large monoplane with an enclosed fuselage to accommodate the passengers and crew. It was to be powered by a steam engine driving two pusher propellers aft of the wing. Henson had followed the lead give by Sir George Cayley in his basic layout, but produced a very much more advanced structural design with cambered wings strengthened by streamlined bracing wires: the intended wing-span was 150 ft (46 m). Henson probably discussed the design of the steam engine and boiler with his friend John Stringfellow (who was also in the lacemaking industry). Stringfellow joined Henson and others to found the Aerial Transit Company, which was set up to raise the finance needed to build Henson's machine. A great publicity campaign was mounted with artists' impressions of the "aerial steam carriage" flying over London, India and even the pyramids. Passenger-carrying services to India and China were proposed, but the whole project was far too optimistic to attract support from financiers and the scheme foundered. Henson and Stringfellow drew up an agreement in December 1843 to construct models which would prove the feasibility of an "aerial machine". For the next five years they pursued this aim, with no real success. In 1848 Henson and his wife emigrated to the United States to further his career in textiles. He became an American citizen and died there at the age of 75.

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1) (not long: You look nice with your hair short; Do you think my dress is too short?) kort

2) (not tall; smaller than usual: a short man.) kortvokst, liten

3) (not lasting long; brief: a short film; in a very short time; I've a very short memory for details.) kort(varig)

4) (not as much as it should be: When I checked my change, I found it was 20 cents short.) for lite/kort

5) ((with of) not having enough (money etc): Most of us are short of money these days.) som mangler penger

6) ((of pastry) made so that it is crisp and crumbles easily.) sprø, kort

1) (suddenly; abruptly: He stopped short when he saw me.) brått, plutselig

2) (not as far as intended: The shot fell short.) (komme) til kort

•

- shortness

- short-lived

brysk

kort

liten

subst. \/ʃɔːt\/

1) ( hverdagslig) kortfilm

2) ( språkvitenskap) kort stavelse, kort vokal

3) ( morsealfabet) kort signal

4) ( musikk) kort tone

5) ( hverdagslig) ublandet drink, bar drink

6) ( hverdagslig) kortslutning

7) ( økonomi) baissespekulant

for short for lettvinthetens skyld

in short kort sagt, kort og godt

have someone by the short and curlies eller get someone by the short and curlies ha noen i sin makt, ha taket på noen

verb \/ʃɔːt\/

se ➢ short-circuit, 2

adj. \/ʃɔːt\/

1) kort, liten (av vekst), lav

• my daughter has short hair

• he's a short man

2) kort(varig), kortfattet

• that was a short holiday

3) knapp, knapt tilmålt, utilstrekkelig

• they gave me a short allowance

• he gave me short change

4) kort, tverr, brysk, avvisende

5) ( mest om bakverk og leire) smulet, sprø, skjør, porøs

• this is short clay

• the cake is short

6) ( om sprit) ren, bar, ublandet

• let's have something short

anything short of alt annet enn, intet mindre enn

cut it short være kortfattet

cut somebody short avbryte noen (tvert)

cut something short avbryte noe, stoppe noe

give short weight snyte på vekten, selge varer som veier for lite

in short supply dårlig tilgang på, mangel på, knapphet på

• fuel is in short supply

in the short run på kort sikt

little short of nesten, ikke langt fra

• it was little short of a miracle

make it short and sweet fatte seg i korthet

nothing short of intet mindre enn

• it was nothing short of a defeat

be of short stature være småvokst, være liten av vekst

short and sweet kort og godt, rene ord for pengene

short back and sides ( ved hårklipp) kort i nakken og ved ørene

be short for være (en) forkortelse for, være (en) kortform av

be short of ha knapt med, være uten

• I'm short of money today

short of mindre enn, kortere enn, før

• she died six weeks short of her hundredth birthday

med unntak av, unntatt, så nær som, utenom

• he will do everything short of that

short of breath andpusten

be short on mangle, være uten

• John is never short on ideas

to cut a long story short kort sagt, for å gjøre en lang historie kort

adv. \/ʃɔːt\/

1) brått, plutselig

• he stopped short

2) for kort

• she never throws the ball short

SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering

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Charles Holtzapffel was the son of John Holtzapffel, a native of Germany who settled in London c.1787 and set up as a manufacturer of lathes and tools for amateur mechanics. Charles Holtzapffel received a good English education and training in his father's workshop, and subsequently became a partner and ultimately succeeded to the business. He was engaged in the construction of machinery for printing banknotes, of lathes for cutting rosettes and for ornamental and plain turning. Holtzapffel is chiefly remembered for his monumental work entitled Turning and Mechanical Manipulation, intended as a work of general reference and practical instruction on the lathe. Publication began in 1843 and only the first two volumes were published in his lifetime. A third volume was edited by his widow from his notes and published shortly after his death. The fourth and fifth volumes were completed by his son, John Jacob Holtzapffel, more than thirty years later. Holtzapffel was an Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers and served on its Council: he was also a member of the Society of Arts and Chairman of its Committee on Mechanics.

SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Paper and printing

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It was intended that Bryan Donkin should follow his father's profession of surveyor and land agent, so he spent a year or so in that occupation before he was apprenticed to John Hall, millwright of Dartford, Kent. Donkin remained with the firm after completing his apprenticeship, and when the Fourdrinier brothers in 1802 introduced from France an invention for making paper in continuous lengths they turned to John Hall for help in developing the machine: Donkin was chosen to undertake the work. In 1803 the Fourdriniers established their own works in Bermondsey, with Bryan Donkin in charge. By 1808 Donkin had acquired the works, but he continued to manufacture paper-making machines, paying a royalty to the patentees. He also undertook other engineering work including water-wheels for driving paper and other mills. He was also involved in the development of printing machinery and the preservation of food in airtight containers. Some of these improvements were patented, and he also obtained patents relating to gearing, steel pens, paper-making and railway wheels. Other inventions of Bryan Donkin that were not patented concerned revolution counters and improvements in accurate screw threads for use in graduating mathematical scales. Donkin was elected a member of the Society of Arts in 1803 and was later Chairman of the Society's Committee of Mechanics and a Vice-President of the society. He was also a member of the Royal Astronomical Society. In 1818 a group of eight young men founded the Institution of Civil Engineers; two of them were apprentices of Bryan Donkin and he encouraged their enterprise. After a change in the rules permitted the election of members over the age of 35, he himself became a member in 1821. He served on the Council and became a Vice- President, but he resigned from the Institution in 1848.

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SUBJECT AREA: Canals

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Ferdinand de Lesseps was born into a family in the diplomatic service and it was intended that his should be his career also. He was educated at the Lycée Napoléon in Paris. In 1825, aged 20, he was appointed an attaché to the French consulate in Lisbon. In 1828 he went to the Consulate-General in Tunis and in 1831 was posted from there to Egypt, becoming French Consul in Cairo two years later. For his work there during the plague in 1836 he was awarded the Croix de Chevalier in the Légion d'honneur. During this time he became very friendly with Said Mohammed and the friendship was maintained over the years, although there were no expectations then that Said would occupy any great position of authority.

De Lesseps then served in other countries. In 1841 he had thought about a canal from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea, and he brooded over the idea until 1854. In October of that year, having retired from the diplomatic service, he returned to Egypt privately. His friend Said became Viceroy and he readily agreed to the proposal to cut the canal. At first there was great international opposition to the idea, and in 1855 de Lesseps travelled to England to try to raise capital. Work finally started in 1859, but there were further delays following the death of Said Pasha in 1863. The work was completed in 1869 and the canal was formally opened by the Empress Eugenic on 20 November 1869. De Lesseps was fêted in France and awarded the Grand Croix de la Légion d'honneur.

He subsequently promoted the project of the Corinth Canal, but his great ambition in his later years was to construct a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. This idea had been conceived by Spanish adventurers in 1514, but everyone felt the problems and cost would be too great. De Lesseps, riding high in popularity and with his charismatic character, convinced the public of the scheme's feasibility and was able to raise vast sums for the enterprise. He proposed a sea-level canal, which required the excavation of a 350 ft (107 m) cut through terrain; this eventually proved impossible, but work nevertheless started in 1881.

In 1882 de Lesseps became first President d'-Honneur of the Syndicat des Entrepreneurs de Travaux Publics de France and was elected to the Chair of the French Academy in 1884. By 1891 the Panama Canal was in a disastrous financial crisis: a new company was formed, and because of the vast sums expended a financial investigation was made. The report led to de Lesseps, his son and several high-ranking government ministers and officials being charged with bribery and corruption, but de Lesseps was a very sick man and never appeared at the trial. He was never convicted, although others were, and he died soon after, at the age of 89, at his home.

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SUBJECT AREA: Land transport, Railways and locomotives, Steam and internal combustion engines

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Caprotti graduated as a mechanical engineer at Turin Royal Polytechnic College and spent some years in the motor car industry. After researching the application of poppet valves to railway locomotives, he invented his rotary cam valve gear for poppet valves in 1915. Compared with usual slide and piston valves and valve gears, it offered independent timing of inlet and exhaust valves and a saving in weight. Valve gear to Caprotti's design was first fitted in 1920 to a 2−6−0 locomotive of the Italian State Railways, and was subsequently widely used there and elsewhere. Caprotti valve gear was first applied in Britain in 1926 to a Claughton class 4−6−0 of the London, Midland \& Scottish Railway, resulting in substantial fuel savings compared with a similar locomotive fitted with Walschaert's valve gear and piston valves. Others of the class were then fitted similarly. Caprotti valve gear never came into general use in Britain and its final application was in 1954 to British Railways class 8 4−6−2 no. 71000; this was intended as the prototype of a class of standard locomotives for express trains, but the class was never built, because diesel and electric locomotives took their place. Some components survived scrapping, and a reconstruction of the locomotive is in working order.

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1) (set of two) Paar, das

2) (single article)

3) (married couple) [Ehe]paar, das; (mated animals) Paar, das; Pärchen, das

4) (Cards) Pärchen, das

- academic.ru/89765/pair_off">pair off

* * *

1) (a set of two of the same thing which are (intended to be) used etc together: a pair of shoes/gloves.) das Paar

2) (a single thing made up of two parts: a pair of scissors; a pair of pants.) (etwas Zweiteiliges)

3) (two people, animals etc, often one of either sex, who are thought of together for some reason: a pair of giant pandas; John and James are the guilty pair.) das Paar

* * *

[peəʳ, AM per]

I. n

1. (two items) Paar nt

I've only got one \pair of hands ich habe [auch] nur zwei Hände

a \pair of eyes ein Augenpaar nt

a \pair of gloves/socks ein Paar nt Handschuhe/Socken

2. (two-part item) Paar nt

a \pair of glasses eine Brille

a \pair of scissors eine Schere

a \pair of trousers eine Hose

a \pair of tweezers eine Pinzette

3. + sing/pl vb (two people) Paar nt

in \pairs paarweise; (couple in a relationship) Paar nt, Pärchen nt

4. + sing/pl vb ZOOL Pärchen nt

5. + sing/pl vb (two horses) Zweiergespann nt

a carriage and \pair ein Zweispänner m

6. BRIT POL verabredete Abwesenheit von Abgeordneten verschiedener Parteien bei einer Abstimmung

II. vi animals sich akk paaren

III. vt usu passive

▪ to be \paired with sb/sth mit jdm/etw ein Paar bilden; BRIT POL

▪ to be \paired with sb mit einem Abgeordneten einer gegnerischen Partei ein Abkommen für die beiderseitige Abwesenheit bei einer Abstimmung treffen

* * *

1. n

1) (of gloves, shoes, people) Paar nt; (of animals, cards) Pärchen nt; (hum sl = breasts) Vorbau m (inf), Dinger pl (sl)

2) pairssing or pl

2. vt

* * *

pair [peə(r)]

A s

1. Paar n:

a pair of boots (eyes, legs, etc): they arrived, etc in pairs paarweise;

these two gloves don’t make a pair gehören oder passen nicht zusammen;

I’ve got only one pair of hands umg ich hab (schließlich) nur zwei Hände, ich kann nicht mehr als arbeiten

2. etwas Zweiteiliges, meist unübersetzt: → glass A 8 c, scissor B 1, trouser A 1, etc;

two pairs of glasses zwei Brillen

3. Paar n, Pärchen n ( Mann und Frau, ZOOL Männchen und Weibchen):

pair skating (Eis-, Rollkunstlauf) Paarlauf(en) m(n);

pair skater Paarläufer(in)

4. POL

a) zwei Mitglieder verschiedener Parteien, die ein Abkommen getroffen haben, bei bestimmten Entscheidungen sich der Stimme zu enthalten oder der Sitzung fernzubleiben

b) dieses Abkommen

c) einer dieser Partner

5. Gegenstück n, (der, die, das) andere oder zweite (von einem Paar):

where is the pair to this shoe? wo ist der zweite Schuh?

6. (Zweier)Gespann n:

a pair of horses, auch a pair-horse, a pair ein (Zweier)Gespann;

carriage and pair Zweispänner m

7. Rudern: Zweier m (Mannschaft): → coxed, pair-oar

8. auch kinematic pair TECH Elementenpaar n:

sliding pair Prismen-, Ebenenpaar

9. Kartenspiel:

a) Paar n, Pärchen n (zwei gleichwertige Karten)

b) Paar n (zwei Spieler, die als Partner spielen)

10. Bergbau: Kameradschaft f (Arbeitsgruppe)

11. pair of stairs ( oder steps) Br Treppe f

B v/t

1. auch pair off ( oder up) paarweise anordnen, in Zweiergruppen einteilen:

pair off (junge) Leute zusammenbringen, verkuppeln;

he was paired (up) with SPORT etc er bekam … als Partner(in)

2. Tiere paaren ( with mit)

C v/i

1. zusammenpassen, ein schönes Paar bilden

2. sich verbinden, sich vereinigen ( beide:

with sb mit jemandem)

3. sich paaren (Tiere)

4. auch pair off POL (mit einem Mitglied einer anderen Partei) ein Abkommen treffen ( → A 4)

5. auch pair off ( oder up) Paare bilden

pr abk

1. pair

2. paper

3. power

* * *

1) (set of two) Paar, das

2) (single article)

3) (married couple) [Ehe]paar, das; (mated animals) Paar, das; Pärchen, das

4) (Cards) Pärchen, das

- pair off

* * *

Paar -e n.

1) (a set of two of the same thing which are (intended to be) used etc together: a pair of shoes/gloves.) par

2) (a single thing made up of two parts: a pair of scissors; a pair of pants.) par

3) (two people, animals etc, often one of either sex, who are thought of together for some reason: a pair of giant pandas; John and James are the guilty pair.) pareja

pair n

1. par

2. pareja

tr[peə^SMALLr/SMALL]

noun

1 (of shoes, socks, gloves, etc) par nombre masculino; (of cards) pareja

■ I've only got one pair of hands! ¡sólo tengo dos manos!

■ a pair of brown eyes dos ojos castaños

2 (of people, animals) pareja

■ shut up, the pair of you! ¡callaos, vosotros dos!

transitive verb

1 (people) emparejar; (animals) aparear

intransitive verb

1 (animals) aparearse

\

in pairs de dos en dos

a pair of knickers unas bragas

a pair of pants (men's) unos calzoncillos

a pair of pyjamas un pijama

a pair of scissors unas tijeras

a pair of tights un panty, unos pantys

a pair of trousers unos pantalones

pair ['pær] vt

: emparejar, poner en parejas

pair vi

: emparejarse

pair n

: par m (de objetos), pareja f (de personas o animales)

a pair of scissors: unas tijeras

• par (Pareja) s.m.

• pareja s.f.

• yunta s.f.

• aparear v.

• emparejar v.

• igualar v.

• parear v.

1)

a) (of shoes, socks, gloves) par m

b) ( in cards) pareja f, par m

2) ( couple) pareja f

transitive verb \<\<objects\>\> emparejar, formar pares con

vi ( Zool) aparearse

- pair off

- pair up

1. N

1) (=set) [of gloves, shoes, socks etc] par m

2) (=group of 2 things) pareja f

3) [of people] (=group of 2) par m; (=couple) pareja f

4) [of animals, birds] pareja f

5) (=counterpart)

a) (gen) pareja f

b) (Brit) (Parl) uno de los dos miembros de partidos opuestos que se ponen de acuerdo para ausentarse de una votación y, de esa forma, anularse mutuamente

6) (Sport)

2. VT

1) (Zool) aparear

2) (=put together) [+ socks, gloves] emparejar

3. VI

1) (gen) formar pareja(s) ( with con)

2) (Zool) aparearse ( with con); formar pareja(s) ( with con)

- pair off

- pair up

* * *

1)

a) (of shoes, socks, gloves) par m

b) ( in cards) pareja f, par m

2) ( couple) pareja f

transitive verb \<\<objects\>\> emparejar, formar pares con

vi ( Zool) aparearse

- pair off

- pair up

1) (a set of two of the same thing which are (intended to be) used etc together: a pair of shoes/gloves.) par

2) (a single thing made up of two parts: a pair of scissors; a pair of pants.) par

3) (two people, animals etc, often one of either sex, who are thought of together for some reason: a pair of giant pandas; John and James are the guilty pair.) (kjæreste-/ekte)par

par

subst. \/peə\/

1) par

• a pair of scissors

• a pair of shoes

• I'd like two pairs of stockings, please

• shut up the pair of you!

• it belongs to the pair of us

2) motstykke, pendant, make

• these gloves are not a pair

• where is the pair to his sock?

• these two pictures make a pair

3) ( kortspill) par

4) ( parlamentarisk) forklaring: to (parlaments)medlemmer av motsatt parti som etter avtale unnlater å møte til avstemning

another pair of shoes en helt annen sak

carriage and pair tospenner (vogn), vogn med to hester

find a pair finne (parlaments)medlem av motsatt parti som sier seg enig i å utebli fra votering

the happy pair det lykkelige paret, de nygifte

in pairs parvis, to og to

a pair of horses hestespann

a pair of stairs en trapp

a two pair (of stairs) room ( gammeldags) ett rom to trapper opp

verb \/peə\/

1) pare

2) pares, pare seg, ordne parvis

3) ( parlamentarisk) avtale å utebli ved avstemning

pair off ordne parvis gruppere (seg) to og to gjøre et par av

pair up slå seg sammen

pair with passe sammen med